Catalogues

• Origin: Mantgomeri district of west Pakistan and ferozpore of Punjab
• Males are commonly used for draft purpose
• Average milk production :1600 liters per lactation
• Fat content :4%
• Average adult body weight: 450-550 kg

• Origin: Gir forest of kathiwar India
• Average milk production:2360 liter per lactation period
• Butter fat content: 9%
• Average body weight: 450-600 kg

• Origin: Punjab, Hariyana and territory of Delhi (India)
• This breed is noted for milk production
• Average milk production:1400-1800 liters per lactation
• Fat content:7%
• Average body weight: 450-550 kg

• Found in eastern region of Nepal, especially in illam, suitable for hily regions
• Famous cattle for drought, Bullocks are suitable for mountainous region for transport and ploughing
• Milk yield under normal condition: 1.8 liters per day

• Located in western region (Achhami, Doti, Bajura and bajhang)
• These cattle are draft type and used for working (transportation as well as ploughing)
• 1st calved at the age of 42 months and yield 6.5 to 12.5 liters milk per day
• Well  adopted in adverse condition and coarse/poor grazing condition

• Female are poor milkers and males are good for transport, ploughing and manure production
• It is an alpine cattle raised from 3000-40000m from the sea level
• Its temper varies from docile to semi wild
• It can survive in adverse environmental condition and feeding condition
• Milk production varies from 0.25 to 2.5 liter per day
• This breed mature late at about 40 months ago
• Calving interval is at least 1 years

• Origin: Found in India (Hariyana, Rohatak, Delhi, UP)
• Fairly good milkers
• Bullocks are powerful for transport and ploughing
• Average milk production : 5-6 liters per day
• Fat content : 4-4.5%
• Average body weight- Male:540 kg, female:360 kg

• Origin: Karanchi and Hyderabad
• Cows are good milkers, bullocks are poor in quality
• Extremely docile
• Milk Production: 5443 liters per lactation period
• Fat content: 4-5% 
• Average body weight-Male:450 kg, Female:295 kg

• Origin: Montogomeri district of Pakistan, also found in Punjab
• Dairy breeds, cows are good milkers and bullocks are lethargic and slow
• Average milk production:9-11 liters per day
• Butter fat content:4-6 %
  • Average body weight-Male:450-550kg,Female:325-350kg

• Origin: Scotland, UK
• Most beautiful dairy breed of cattle
• Over active and difficult to manage
• Average milk production:4500 liters per lactation period of 305 days
• Fat content: 4.0%

• Origin: Switzerland
• Multipurpose breed
• Active and have a good grazing capacity
• Quite docile and easy to handle
• More heat tolerant
• Average milk production is 5000 liters per lactation period of 305 days
• Butter fat content 4.0%
• Average body weight female:550 kg and male:750 kg

• Origin: Island of Jersey, UK
• Good milking breed with high % of butter fat content
• Economical producer of milk in Nepalese condition especially in hilly region
• Capable of utilizing roughages efficiently
• Can withstand tropical and sub-tropical or humid climate more than Holstein Friesian
• Heifer grow more rapidly and matured early
• Average milk production is 4000 to 4500 liters per lactation period of 305 days

• Origin: Holland
• Highest milk production in the world
• Large feeding capacity and well developed udder
• Males may be vicious but female are docile
• Average milk production 6000-7000 liters per lactation period of 305 days
• Fat butter content 3.4%
• Average body weight female:575-650 kg and male:850-1000kg

• Noted bacon breed
• Small litters
• Body weight:- Male 245-265kg

                       Female 200kg

• Well known for meat
• Body weight:- Male 300kg, Female 250kg

• Good carcass quality and feed conversion ability
• Excellent mothering ability
• Body weight:- Male 310-400kg, Female 250-330kg

• Good grazing breed, does well in open air system
• Prolific breeder
• Maturing early
• Good mothering ability

• Good milking and mothering ability
• Good carcass quality
• Very susceptible to sunburn especially at the base of ears
• Body weight:- Male 300-450kg Female 250-350kg

• Very high prolificacy
• Litter size: 4-6
• Body weight:- Male 450kg Female 350kg

• Found in Eastern Nepal

• Excellent meat type
• Sturdy boar especially for natural mating
• Prolific, good longevity and good growth rate
• Lean gain efficiency, carcass yield, muscle quality
• Body weight:- Male 300kg Female 250kg

• Found in Eastern terai and mid hills
• Highly prolific
• Reared under semi-intensive system
• Resistant to diseases
• Litter size:- 8-10

• Seasonal reproduction
• Females are slightly smaller than males
• Males are 65cm long, 8.5kg

• Gestation period: 115 days
• Litter size: 4-6
• Height: 90-95cm
• Body weight:- Male 200kg Female250kg

• Developed at Pakhribas, Dhankuta through 3 way crossing between Saddleback, Fayun and Tamworth
• Found in Eastern hilly region
• Age of first farrowing: 368 days
• Farrowing interval: 178 days
• Litter size: 9-10
• Body weight:- Male 250kg Female 175kg

• Smallest breed of pig
• Domesticated breed of Junglee Bandel
• Found in wild habita, in and around Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve
• Age of first farrowing: 300 days
• Farrowing interval: 170-189 days
• Litter size: 2-6
• Body weight:- Male 20kg Female 25kg

• Largest indigenous breed of Nepal
• Found in central and western terai, reared under scavenging conditions
• Females are larger than males
• Age of first farrowing: 226 days
• Farrowing interval: 196 days
• Litter size: 2-6
• Body weight:- Male 50kg Female 58kg

• Second largest indigenous breed of pig in Nepal
• Females are larger than males
• Found in hilly region, reared under scavenging, semi-intensive and intensive system
• Hardy and resistant to many diseases

Age of first farrowing:- 283 days

Farrowing interval:- 192 days

Litter size:- 7-8

Gestation period:- 115 days

Body weight:- Male 23kg

                         Female 35kg

•  Bottom feeder
• Carnivorous in habit; mainly prefer molluscs, fishes, insects, crustaceans etc.
• Attain maturity at about 54 cm size at the end of the third year age 
• Spawning takes place in May - June at the start of the monsoon season.
• Seasonal spawner
• Very hardy fish in nature
• Can withstand long ranged temperature and salinity and high turbidity.
• It can also thrive well in low dissolved oxygen condition
• Mature fish can reach a maximum standard total length of 130 cm and up to 44 kg in weight.
• Typically living within the ranges of pH 6.5-7.5 and 22-26 °C

• Size: 2.74m (max length)
• length that can reach up to 1.8m and weigh over 54kg
• Golden Mahseer is considered as an endangered species and falls under the  IUCN Red List
• Popular game fish

It is a cold freshwater species

Insects remain their dominant food source throughout life, although they are opportunistic piscivores.

The anadromous form of rainbow trout, called the steelhead trout, migrates to the ocean at 1–3 years of age.

Weighing up to 1–3 kg and 3–10 years of age

•  Max length : 60.0 cm
• Max. published weight: 4.3 kg
• max. reported age: 9 years
• Genital papillae of male short and conical or bluntly bifid at tip and not tessellated.
• Sexual maturity is reached at 3-6 months depending on temperature, reaching about 30 g.
• Extended temperature range 8-42 °C, natural temperature range 13.5 - 33 °C
• Reproduction occurs only when temperatures are over 20°C.
• Feeds mainly on phytoplankton or benthic algae.
• Oviparous
• Maternal mouthbrooders

• Average length of 51-61 cm an weight of 1.8-4.5 kg is attained
• It is a bottom feeder
• Omnivorous and feeds on insect larvae, worms, molluscs, detritus, fresh and decayed vegetation
•  Multiple breeder and can breed upto 5 times a year.
• Breeding season of common carp is March-April however it can be bred in September-October. 
• Golden carp are bred for ornamental purposes. 

• Males normally mature one year earlier than females.
• Body weight at maturity is around 3-8 kg.
• Can grow maximum uto to 45 kilograms, reach lengths greater than 1 metre
• ,Llife span between 5 and 11 years.
• Adult Grass Carp primarily eat aquatic vegetation,

• Solid gray on back, flanks silvery to light olive, grading to a white belly.
• Sides often with numerous, small, dark, irregular blotches.
•  Fins with somewhat darker pigmentation.
• Forked caudal fin.
• Pelvic fins abdominal.
• No adipose fin. 
•  Numerous small cycloid scales. .
• Typical adult size is 400-700 mm TL (1.3-2.3 ft), with a maximum of about 1300 mm (4.3 ft).
• Sharp ridges on anterior pectoral rays in breeding males.

Average length of the Silver Carp fish is around 60-100 cm.

Silver carp mature at 70 cm TL (5 kg) at an age of 3 to 4 years

The large sized fish can reach as much as 140 cm body length. 

It can weight around 50 kg.

This species is known for leaping out of the water when startled (e.g., by noises such as a boat motor).

•  Bottom feeder
• Omnivorous; feed on detritus, mud organism, decaying plants and animals.
• Can reach maximum length up to 1 meter with an average length of around 40 cm
• Average body weight is about 1-2 kg
• Maximum weight is about 12.7 kg.
• Sexual maturity is attained within 1 or 2 years depending on location

origin: france 
large size wool are produced 
less prollific breed used for meat purpose as well 
Breed Size: Large
Weight: Rams weight between 113 and 135 kg and the ewe’s weight vary from 68 to 90 kg
Horns: Yes
Climate: Tolerance All climates
Color: Can 
Very hardy and strong animals, kept for both meat and wool production, well suited to almost all climates, well known for their superior wool and near-mutton breed characteristics

origin: spain
wool production: good
breed type : exotic
distribution: worldwide 
popular for good wool production 
Small in body /angular in form
Slow maturing
Lambing percentage of 100%
Hardy breed does well under extensive conditions
Have good flocking instincts
They produce fleece that is highly valued

Attains up to 182 cm in length and 38.6 kg in weight

Carnivorous, column feeder

feeds mainly on zooplankton

•  Rohu attains about 35-45 cm total length.
•  Growth rate higher than Mrigal but lower than Catla
• Age of sexual maturity: 2-3 years

origin: mexico
weight: 0.9-2.7 kg
height: 15-20 cm

size: small

life span: 12-20 yrs 
other characters: loyal, entertaning, good social habit, small and easy to carry, travels well, naturally friendly, more porne to injury, look awesome in clothes, loyal to their own, used in sports as well, require minimum of grooming, they are not tolerate alone condition, intelligence and easy to train, sensetive to cold weather

origin: spain and england

height: 1ft 2 inch - 1ft 3inch

weight: 10-14 kg
life span: 12-15 yrs

size: medium
other characters: very sensetive, benifit from good socilization, gentl, easy to train and handle, very smart, required more attention for their hair, more succeptible for disease than other breed of dog, mostly use for hunting, ear and skin infection is common 

The machine is mainly used for land leveling so that moisture is conserved and other operations are also easy to work out. It helps in the reduction in time and water for irrigation, uniform water distribution,lesser weeds in the field, good germination of seeds along with reduction in seed rate, fertilizer requirements.

The machine is used instead of manual weeding for reducing weeding time and overall weeding efficiency. It can be used in every type of crop but the crops should be cultivated in a fixed geometric pattern i.e row to row and plant to plant spacing should be maintained. When used efficiently the machine can remove weed from 2-2.5 ropani land per day.

A disc harrow is a farm implement that is used to till the soil where crops are to be planted. It is also used to chop up unwanted weeds or crop remainders.

Mould Board Plough is the most important plough for primary tillage in canal irrigated or heavy rain areas where too much weeds grow.

The objective forploughing with a Mould Board is to completely invert and pulverize the soil, up-root all weeds, trash and crop residues and bury them under the soil.

The modern combine harvester, or simply combine, is a versatile machine designed to efficiently harvest a variety of grain crops.

The name derives from its combining three separate harvesting operations - reaping, threshing, and winnowing - into a single process.

Among the crops harvested with a combine are wheat, oats, rye, barley, corn (maize), sorghum, soybeans, flax (linseed), sunflowers and canola.

A corn sheller is a hand-held device or a piece of machinery to shell corn kernels of the cob for feeding to livestock or for other uses.

Can shell about 1.5 - 2 tons of maize per hour.

Automatic milking is the milking of dairy animals, especially of dairy cattle, without human labour.

The machine includes teat cups that contact the cow’s teats and remove the milk.

Have vaccum system.

2-3 cattles can be milked at single time.

A brushcutter (also called a brushsaw or clearing saw) is a powered garden or agricultural tool used to trim weeds, small trees, and other foliage not accessible by a lawn mower or rotary mowe

It consists of:

• A power unit held close to the body.
• A pole through which the power is transmitted.
• A rotary cutting head at the opposite end of the pole to the power unit.

Runs by diesel, petrol and kerosene as well.

Different models of varying pumping capacity are available.

Water pumping capacity of about 25,000 to 1,25,000 litre per hour upto height of 25-32 metre.

A post hole digger is a tool used to dig narrow holes to install posts, such as for fences and signs.

 A post hole pincer (pictured) is jabbed into the ground in the open position until the blades are buried. At that point the handles are pulled apart to close the tool and grab the chunk of soil loosened. They are then pulled out of the ground with the chunk of soil. The process is repeated until the hole is deep enough, or until the hole is so deep and narrow that the handles can no longer be pulled apart fully.

Can make holeof 1 metre deep and 2-14 inch wide.

Depending upon the soil conditions can make 45 to 60 holes per hour.

Potential of 1 HP, 26 CC, 4 stroke engine.

Can run for an  hour from half litres.

Used in spraying purpose.

Can run by electric power of 0.55 kw.

can spray about 100 m far and spray 420 litre per hour.

A chaff cutter is a mechanical device for cutting straw or hay into small pieces before being mixed together with other forage and fed to horses and cattle.

This aids the animal's digestion and prevents animals from rejecting any part of their food.

Used in spraying purpose.

Features; 1 HP, 26 cc, 2 stroke

Have capacity of about 60 litres.

Can spray 360 litre per hour.

 Extensively used in grape vineyards, coffee plantations, orchards, tall-tree, field crops and rubber plantations to ensure pest free field.

A lawn mower (mower) is a machine utilizing one or more revolving blades to cut a grass surface to an even height.

The height of the cut grass may be fixed by the design of the mower, but generally is adjustable by the operator, typically by a single master lever, or by a lever or nut and bolt on each of the machine's wheels

Secateurs are a gardening tool that look like a pair of strong, heavy scissors.

Secateurs are used for cutting the stems of plants.

Rotavator is a tractor-drawn implement which is mainly used for seed bed preparation within one or two passes and is suitable in removing & mixing residual of maize, wheat, sugarcane etc., thereby, helps to improve soil health and save fuel, cost, time & energy as well.

It is very useful and effective for puddling (paddy/rice field preparation with water) It’s less weight is strength of the product that allows the rotary tiller to move in loose soil with low HP tractor easily.

The Paddy thresher is to thresh crops. It can be operated by any Tractor & also with 10 HP Electronic Motor. No Paddy is left in the crop & not breakage of Rice in the Paddy. There is a special blower inbuilt for cleaning the Paddy. The capacity of this Thresher is 1 Acre per hour

A hedge trimmer, shrub trimmer, or bush trimmer, is a gardening tool or machine used for trimming (cutting, pruning) hedges or solitary shrubs (bushes). Different designs as well as manual and powered versions of hedge trimmers exist.

A chainsaw is a portable, mechanical saw which cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain that runs along a guide bar. It is used in activities such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression and harvesting of firewood. 

Used for sowing different crops such as wheat, barley, maize, peas, black grams, pulses etc. in prepared (tilled) fields with fertilizer.

It can be used to harvest Paddy, Wheat, Maize etc. 

It can harvest up to 1.5 m width.

It can harvest 6-7 katha area in 1 hour time period.

It can transplant 4 to 8 lines of paddy.

It can transplant 12-15 Katha area within 1 hour.

It can be operated with 0.5 liter diesel oil for 1 hour.

It has capacity of 4.5 liter tank capacity

Sorghum is popularly known as Camel of crops as it can tolerate exceptional drought. The seeds are high in carbohydrate content with 10% protein and 3.4% fat  and contains small amount of minerals and vitamins so have high feeding value.

The succulent, aromatic, and flavorful fruit is eaten fresh, cooked as a starchy vegetable, or preserved (e.g., salted like a pickle).

The nutritious seeds are boiled or roasted and eaten like chestnuts, added to flour for baking, or added as ingredients to cooked dishes.

All parts of an orange, including the seeds and leaves, are rich in vitamin C, which is a powerful antioxidant.

Compounds found in orange peels helps lower cholesterol naturally. Fiber in oranges helps prevent atherosclerosis and protects against rheumatoid arthritis.

Papayas produce an enzyme, papain, which aids digestion and is used to tenderize meat.

Papain has been used in medicine to treat ulcers and reduce skin adhesions following surgery, and studies have shown that it has antimicrobial properties

. Papain is also used to clarify beer, prepare wool and silk for dyeing, and remove hair from hides before tanning, among other uses.

Papaya is usuallydioecious but hermophrodite type and gynodioecious types are also recognized. In dioecious
type, both male and female plants are separate.

 Mangoes have recalcitrant seeds which do not survive freezing and drying.

 Mango trees grow readily from seeds, with germination success highest when seeds are obtained from mature fruits.

During processing of mango, by-products such as peel and kernel are generated. Kernels take up about 17-22% of the fruit.

The fruits are a rich source of sugar (6-20%), protein 0.7% abd faurkt rucg ub fat (0.3%), mineralslike calcium (10mg) phosphorus (35mg) and vitamins like vitamin C (64mg), vitamin B1 (0..2mg), B2 (0.03 mg and B3 (0.1 mg) per 100g.

The fruits can be canned, made into squash,pickles, and wine or dried to form litchi nut.

Apple seeds are known for containing small amounts of cyanide, a poison without an antidote that makes the blood unable to carry oxygen, resulting in asphyxiation. However, the amount of cyanide in each seed is so small that there is little danger of accidentally consuming a lethal dose. 

Apple seeds are coated with a tough, protective layer, keeping them from being digested unless ground or chewed.

This not only protects us from the cyanide, it also protects the seed. If it is not destroyed by the digestive system of animals, it can then sprout wherever they deposit it in their fertile stool.

i) Pegion pea can reach 0.5-4 m in height.

ii) It is perennial shrub grown for its edible pods and seeds.

iii) Pegion pea is fast growing , hardy , widely adaptable and drought resistant plant.

i) It is short-lived perennial, legume usually grown as an annual plant.

ii) Rice bean  seeds and vegetable part are also used for fodder.

iii) It is usually 30-100cm in height , but can grow upto 200cm.

i)The horse gram is normally used to feed horses , though it is commonly used in cooking.

ii) It is prescribed for person suffering from jaundice or water retention and as a part of a weight loss diet.

iii) Horse gram are mainly grown under dry land agriculture.

i) Sunflower is annual herbaceous plant and grown for its seed can reach upto 1-3.5m.

 ii) It consists of a hard hull (pericarp) and a kernel , which is the actual seed.

i) It is an annual herbaceous plant grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semi-arid areas in Africa and Asia.

ii) It is small grained , warm weather cereal.

i) Buckwheat is an herbaceous annual plant grown for its seeds.

ii) The plant produces many small white or pink flowers which when pollinated, quickly produce seeds.

i) Rapeseed is an herbaceous annual or biennial member of family Brassicaceae primarily grown for the oil which can be extracted from its seeds.

ii) It is third largest source of vegetable oil in the world.

i) Fennel is hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves.

ii) It is highly aromatic and flavourful herb with culinary and medicinal uses.

iii) It grows to height of upto 2 – 5 m, with the hollow stem.

i) Lentil is an edible pulse, is a busy annual plant.

ii) Red lentil is a self-pollinating crop.

iii)Seeds are presence inside pods. Each pod contains two seeds.

i) It is the world’s most traded spice and is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world.

ii) It is flowering vine which is usually dried.

i) It is annual shrub which can grow to 7 m in height but usually only reaches 1 – 2 m height.

ii) It is a crop generally cultivated for improving soil quality.

iii) It is used as a green manure crop.    

i) Cardamom is called the “Queen of spices”.

ii) Cardamom is a herbaceous, perennial, rhizomatous plant of the ginger family, used as a spice.

iii) The seeds and the oil from the seeds are used to make medicine.

i) Black gram is an erect, fast growing annual , herbaceous legume reaching 30 – 100 cm in height.

ii) It is grown for vegetables as well as for forage and hay.

i) Broad bean are excellent protein source.

ii) Broad bean are member of pea family and are one of the oldest known cultivated plants.

iii) It is a stiffly erect plant 0.5 – 1.8 m tall with stout stems of square cross section. 

i) Cumin is annual herbaceous plant, with a slender, glabrous, branched stem and grows upto 30 – 50 cm.

ii) Cumin seeds are dried seeds which is excellent source of iron.

iii) Cumin seeds are used as a spice for its distinctive flavor and aroma.

i) It is a herbaceous annual plant grown worldwide for its edible dry seeds or unripe fruit.

ii) It is valued for its high content of protein and micronutrients such as iron and folic acid .

i) Soyabean is the largest oilseed crop.

ii) It is the annual plant that grows upto 1.5 m tall.

iii) Soyabean seed are extremely high in protein content and are grown successfully in regions with high temperature.

i) Mung bean is an annual vine reaching a height of 0.15-1.25m, alternatively known as the green gram ,maash or moong.

ii) Mung bean can be used as cover crop before or after cereal crops.

iii) Mung bean are rich in protein and starch with a low lipid content and variable but generally low amounts of fibre.

i) Field pea is an annual plant with a lifecycle of one year.

ii) It is cool season crop grown in many parts of the world and use as a vegetable crop.

i) Methi is an annual plant with leaves consisting of three small obovate to oblong leaflets.

ii) It is cultivated worldwide as a semiarid crop.

iii) Trigonella means three edges due to the shape of its flower and  foenum-graecum is the latin word for the plant that is mixed with poor quality straws to create fragrance.

i) The chickpea plant is an  annual sticky herb till 1.64 feet tall.

ii) It is also called Bengal gram or Garbanzo bean or chana.

iii) Chick pea is one of the worlds most consumed pulses.

i)It is also called cilantro , is an annual herb which all parts are edible.

ii) It is used in cuisines throughout the world.

iii) The plant reaches upto 20 inches tall.

i) It is also called linseed which comes from small, single stemmed annual plant that grow to about 2 ft. (0.6 m) tall with grayish green leaves and sky blue flowers.

ii) It is used for extraction of oil known as linseed oil.

iii) It is rich source of Alpha Linolenic Acid ( ALA).

i) Mustard are herbaceous annual plant grown for their seed which are used as spice.

ii) The lower leaves are deeply lobed , while upper leaves are narrower and not lobed.

iii) Flowers are actinomorphic and stamens are tetradynamous.

i) Sesame is a flowering plant also called benne.

ii) The fruit is a capsule within which there are from 15-20 seeds.

i) It is an annual grass and comes in two varieties , distinguished by number of rows of flowers on its flower spike i.e. 6 and 2 row barley.

ii) It is lighter than wheat .

i) Maize is an annual grass and is a staple food crop grown all over the world.

ii) Maize plant possesses a simple stem of nodes and internodes.

iii) Male inflorescence is called tassel and female inflorescence is called ear.

i) Wheat is one of the oldest and most important of the cereal crops.

ii) The demand of wheat is increasing due to unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties of gluten protein which facilitate the production of processed food.

iii) The main part of the wheat grain are barn, endosperm and germ.

Rice, a monocot is most widely consume as a staple food.

Rice can produce ratoon crops for upto 30 years and requires ample water.

Main parts of rice grain are husk , bran, endosperm and germ.

Onion seed constitutes 38% of oil that is responsible for its aromatic flavor. The seeds are used as flavoring agents while cooking.

The seeds need to be toasted to enhance their fragrant tinge.

The seeds are also added in various forms of bread like naan, paratha, chapatti, etc. In few parts of the world, onion seeds are also used to season fish.

Onions grown from seed almost always perform better than those grown from sets.

Carrot seeds are not true seeds in a botanical sense but are dry fruits called 'schizocarps'.

Seeds are highly variable due to cross-pollination and have undergone extensive breeding programs to increase uniformity.

 Hybridization, however, has not produced consistent results.

Seed development and vigor are determined by the conditions under which they are formed.

The most commonly eaten portion is the napiform taproot, although the entire plant is edible and the tops can be used as a leaf vegetable.

The seed can also be sprouted and eaten raw in a similar way to mung bean.

The seeds of radishes can be pressed to extract radish seed oil.

Wild radish seeds contain up to 48% oil, and while not suitable for human consumption, this oil is a potential source of biofuel.

Nutritionally, the richest part of the okra plant is the seed.

Although the oil of the okra seed after processing is edible, and the residual meal following oil extraction is significantly rich in protein, the seed is not traditionally used for either oil or protein, but rather for seedling and regeneration purposes.

The seeds of mature okra pods, sometimes used as poultry feed, are also consumed after roasting, and as a coffee substitute. 

There are between 300-500 seeds in a watermelon, depending upon the size of course.

Although usually discarded, the seeds are edible and delicious when roasted.

They are also highly nutritious and high in fat as well.

One cup of watermelon seeds has over 600 calories.

 

Pointed gourd is perennial dioecious grown as vine.

Propagation is by vine  cutting and root suckers.

Seed propagation is avoided due to poor germination and inability to determine sex of the plants before flowering(50% plants may be male).

The immature fruit is green with white seeds.

The fruit turns orange when mature and splits open from top down to reveal bright red seeds. 

The immature fruits are often cooked and eaten as a vegetable. They are rich in vitamins A and C. 

The fruits are used in folk medicine to treat diabetes. Its juice is applied externally to treat skin disorders and its juice is drunk as a cure for arthritis, rheumatism and asthma.

Bottle gourds are also called "calabashes", they are sometimes confused with the hard, hollow fruits of the unrelated calabash tree,  whose fruits are also used to make utensils, containers, and musical instruments.

Calabash fruits have a variety of shapes: they can be huge and rounded, small and bottle shaped, or slim and serpentine, and they can grow to be over a metre long.

Luffa, or loofah, is derived from the Arabic name, louff, for Luffa cylindrica, while the specific epithet, acutangula, means “with sharp edges”, referring to the prominent ridges of the fruit. 

Edible Plant Parts (Edible Fruits; Edible Leaves; Edible Flowers), Medicinal (The fibres, charred and fresh fruits, seeds, leaves and sap from the stem of Luffa acutangula have uses in medicine and cosmetics.

Ridge gourd is extremely rich in dietary fiber helps in proper functioning of digestive system

Fiber of mature dry fruits is used as a bath sponge. 

As tender fruits are easily digestible and appetizing,it is prescribed for those who are suffering from malaria and other seasonal fevers.

For seed production, the fruits are harvested when they get physiologically mature.

Seeds are high in protein, oil, and minerals (they contain 30% protein and 40–50% oil), and are eaten raw, toasted, or pressed to make oil. 

C. pepo has numerous traditional medicinal uses: seeds are toasted and eaten to kill intestinal parasites; fruits are used as a diuretic and anti-diabetic; and a preparation of the flowers has been used to treat jaundice, measles, and smallpox.

The seeds are nutrient-rich, with especially high content of protein, dietary fibers and numerous micronutrients.

The word can refer either to the hulled kernel or unhulled whole seed, and most commonly refers to the roasted end products.

The oil of pumpkin seeds, a culinary specialty in and important export commodity of Central Europe, is used in cuisine,as a salad, and cooking oil.

Fully mature fruit with ripe rind colour are harvested. Mature seeds easily separate from the interior. 

 For seed extraction by hand the fruits are cut in half length wise and the seeds are scrapped into a container where the seeds and juice mixture are allowed to ferment for a day in water.

Seeds are washed in water and dried under sun.

Drying is continued unit seed moisture reaches to about 10%

• Seeds start developing in fruit rapidly during 14-21 days after anthesis.
• A kilogram seeds contain 120-170 thousand seeds.
• Increased seed yield was observed with higher nutrition.
• Phosphorus is known to increase seed size than nitrogen and potash.
• Seeds remain viable for longer period in fruit than when seeds extracted and stored.

There are basically three methods of seed extraction: (1) juice and seed extraction, (2) acid extraction which is not recommended, and (3) extraction by fermentation, which is the preferred method.

 Fermentation is the preferred method because it is a natural process that is least harmful to the seed and can destroy bacterial canker and other seed-borne diseases.

The seeds are scattered through the fruit, embedded in a firm placenta.

.Many seeds are formed in a single fruit (800-1000 in long brinjal and 1000-1500 in round brinjal.

The harvested fruits are stored for three to four days until they become soft. This allows the seed to mature fully. The top one-third of the fruit is removed since it contains almost no seed. Then seeds are extracted by suitable methods.

-known as queen of bulbous plants.

-sword lily, with its beautiful flower spike 

-Inflorescence with variety of colours and number of pretty florets.

-Third most important commercial cut flower after rose and gladiolus.

-can be cultivated through cutting and seed both.

-bulbous perennial plants.

-native flower of Mexico.

-perennial plants of creeping habit.

-poisonous plant due to calcium oxalate.

-Can be propagated through cutting and seed both.

-Propagated by seed and cutting.

-Dwarf to medium height.

-produces white pink colored scented bloom.

-Height varies from 0.5 to 2.5cm.

-flower color may white ,yellow,pink ,orange.scarlet and orange scarlet.

-Propagated by cutting and air layering both.

-Flower are white at the time of openning but gradually turn into pink and reddish.

-Propagated easily by cutting and layering.

-propagated by cutting and layering.

-bushy shrub,

-Grown for ornamental foliage and beautiful form.

-Flower colour can yellow and red both .

--propagated by division of rhizomes 

-flower in two flushes-september-December and february -April.

-propagated by leaf cutting.

-Have fleshy foliage and stem.

-Capable of withstanding long hot spells of drought.

-store sufficient moisture in their succulent body parts.

-Tall shrub growing 2-3 m height.

-Flowers are yellow ,orange or white and funnel shaped.

-Blooms throughout the year.

-Used as ornamental hedge.

-Dwarf to medium tree.

-Evergreen nature.

-bright red coloured flowers appeared in march to october.

-Propagated by seed and layering.

A large,woody shrub with axillary spines.

Propagated from cutting and seed.

-Tall and deciduous nature.

-Dark red colour flower.

Blooms in December to february.

-Propagated by seed.

-Also known as Daisy.

- Popular commercial cut flower in the world.

-Propagated by seed ,stem cutting and division.

Disease caused by Crustacean.

This is commonly known as carp lice.

Secondary infection

As a result the carp become weak and even death may occur.

Protozoan disease

Pathogen: Ciliated, having prominent denticular ring

High bacterial loads provide abundant food for Trichodininds,

Protozoan disease.

Also known as White spot disease or Ich.

Most common in carps. 

The parasites are often introduced through infected fish or pond equipment. 

Changes in environmental conditions such as, the introduction of lower temperature water to that of the pond or tank can also cause the release.

It is a protozoan disease.

Also known as Whirling Disease

The parasite does not infect humans or predators that eat infected fish; trout and salmon with whirling disease can be safely eaten.

• It is a protozoan disease.
• Common ectoparasitic disease
• Also known as Blue slime disease
• Attack all species of fish

The disease is spread by fungal cysts which are released in the faeces and by cannibalism of infected fish.

Particularly severely affected organs are:- liver, spleen, heart(herring), kidney, gonads,brain, gills and musculature and nerve tissue behind the eyes depending upon fish species

Diseased fish shows curious swinging movements hence the disease is called as swinging disease.

 It is also known as “Reeling Disease”.

EUS is an infection caused by an oomycete fungi known as  Aphanomyces invadans or A. piscicida.

Also known as :

• Red Spot  Disease (RSD)
•  Mycotic Granulomatosis (MG)
•  Ulcerative Mycosis (UM)
• Epizootic Granulomatous Aphanomycosis (EGA). 

An epizootic condition of wild and farmed freshwater and estuarine fish

Also known as Gill Rot 

Both species of fungi are found in fish suffering from an environmental stress, such as low pH (5.8 to 6.5), low dissolved oxygen, or a high algal bloom. 

Branchiomyces sp. grow at temperatures between 57° and 95°F but grow best between 77° and 90°F.

The main sources of infection are the fungal spores carried in the water and detritus on pond bottoms.

Fish becomes weak and lethargic 
Inflammation of liver and intestine.

Also known as Cotton Wool or  Water Mould Disease

Most common fungus affecting fishes, especially major carps.

Mainly a secondary infection seen after damage to the fish integument.

Causes: Water pollution and overcrowding 

• Common external infection of hatchery reared salmonids and occasionally of warm water species reared under intensive conditions.
• Colonization of damaged gills by bacteria
• Transmitted through water from infected fish.
• Reduces the ability of the gills to supply oxygen to the blood
• Results in mortality if left unchecked

It is also a contagious disease.

Medium and large size fishes are affected by this disease.
 

Leads to  lethargy and loss of appetite

Caused due to bacterial infection.

Results in the putrefaction of Caudal fin(Tail) or other fins.

Fin and tail rot are associated with poor sanitary conditions in fish ponds and with water pollution in nature.

 If the disease is left untreated, the disease can spread to other areas of the body.

 Buildup of fluid inside the body cavity or tissues. 

Can indicate a number of underlying diseases, including bacterial infections, parasitic infections, or liver dysfunction.

Most feared disease in carp culture.

An acute or chronic disease of fishes

Bacterial disease

Specially affected : IMC, Exotic carp,Gold fish and cat fishes as well

• The cotton bollworm is a highly polyphagous species.
• Larva feeds on silk and developing grains.

• Larvae feed on roots, tubers, and underground stems as well as dead plant material and complete their development in the soil.
• Whitefringed beetles overwinter as larvae.

• Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap
• Reduction of chlorophyll content
• Less photosynthesis
• Quality and the yield both are greatly reduced.
• Severely damaged leaves show several minute yellow specks and small black pustules of excreta.
• Leaves gradually wither and fall of.

Both adult and larval stages feed on seeds within the pods.

Female deposits an egg at a site where she has been feeding. Small cavities and shallow furrows are typical forms of injury.

Leaves folded together with tender shoots showing bore . It has holes.

The larva leaves the shelter to feed, and lines the shelter with silk.

• Adults and nymphs feed on the sap resulting in yellowing and drying of leaves.
• Severe reductions in seed quality and quantity.

Developing pods show feeding punctures inside and grains become shriveled, they suck cell sap.

Lays eggs on leaf surface especially neat the petiole ends

Causes drooping of the tender leaves and  seedling wilt.

The fly oviposits eggs into the tender pods.

The larvae then feeds on the epidermis and enters the seeds and damage them

• Buds, flowers and young pods with boreholes plugged with excreta.

• Buds, flowers and young pods with boreholes

• Honey dew secretion with black ant movements.

Feed on the floral buds and flowers

  Attacked flowers become brownish and unattractive

  Larvae are beneficial.

When disturbed, larvae regurgitate a greenish, bitter-tasting, defensive chemical. the larvae pupate inside the leaf nest.

The pupal stage is the overwintering stage.

• Dropping of flowers and young pods
• Older pods marked with a brown spot where a larvae has entered.

Damage symptoms include feeding punctures appearing as black or brown spots and presence of a large number of shiny, olive-green near circular bugs on the plants.

Larval and adult stages will feed upon the leaves, flowers and pods of the bean plant

The upper surface of the leaves dries out after the lower section is injured, giving a lace-like, skeletonized appearance.

Occasionally blossoms, and in many cases small pods, will be entirely destroyed.

Caterpillars eat away leaves and soft portions of stems and branches.

In severe, infestation the entire plant can be defoliate.

Pods  become malformed .

Caterpillars feed on reproductive parts of the flower.

Later they web the inflorescence with leaves, pods and then feed within.

They damage seeds as well as cause flowers, buds and pods to drop.

It also enters into the pod and feeds on developing grains.

Adults and new born suck sap from litchi sitting at fruit stalk. Fruit drops occur once infected. Fruits of infected plant are not tastier.

They also infect the young branches.

Diseased pant. Poorly developed plant .

They transmit several diseases like mild mosaic. High density of aphids found in leaf surface.

Holes are found at the region of branching of stems. Web like structures fou

nd in the branch and stems. Abnormally developed

plant. Dried branches.

Surface of pomegranate contains black and brown colored holes.

Bark contains brown spots. Smell from the fruit. Early dropping of fruits.

The mites puncture and lacerate the tissues of the leaf and suck the cell sap.

- They attack the young leaves causing hairy blister like gall on the upper side of the leaves. The leaves also become thickened wrinkled and distorted and may ultimately fall off.

- The mite also attack and cause malformation of inflorescence.

Early symptoms of the infestation are the presence of small pinhead sized holes on the stem, fibrous extrusions from bases of leaf petiole and exudation of a gummy substance from the holes on the pseudostem.

- In advanced stages of infestation, the stem when split open will show extensive tunneling both in the leaf sheath and in the true stem. Rotting occurs and foul odour is emitted. Weakening of the stem by larval tunneling often result in breakage by wind.

The tent caterpillar feed on leaves and also modifies the leaf margin into web like structure (Tent).

- The caterpillar being voracious in nature feed heavily and defoliate the tree.

These insects suck the sap which result weak young plants in the nursery.

- The leaves, twigs, fruits and sometimes even the entire bark may be seen covered with ashy-grey scales.

- The affected fruits present pink colored areas around the scales and the market value of such fruits is reduced.

It causes the damages in Nursery bed. It destroys the soft part of stem, roots and leaves by sucking the vital sap from the tissue.

- In severe case of infestation, few warts can be observed and lead to low production of fruits.

The adults of pyslla suck the sap from young saplings. As well during sucking of sap, the insects also release the poisonous products in the leaves that cause the leaves distorted.

- The insect also deposit the honey like sweet product in leaves that make the favorable environment for the growth and development of Sooty mould.

- Citrus Psylla is the major vector insect for transferring Greening disease bacteria.

The caterpillars feed on the leaves and especially young seedlings and trees are seriously affected.

 Complete defoliation occurs in severe attack.

Nymphs and adults damages the citrus plants by sucking the vital sap from the leaves, stems and fruits which stunted growth.

Soft scaled bodied insects produce honey like sweet products which provide favorable environment for the growth and development of Sooty mould and results in blackish appearance of leaves and stem.

Reduced Flowering

• Reduced fruiting and production.
• Honeydew excreted by scales coats the outside of fruits and leaves, and promotes the growth of sooty mold fungus that inhibits photosynthesis, weakens the plant, and makes fruit unattractive.

• Pierces and removes nutrients from leaves, and weakens the plant.
• Killed during heavy infestations.

The female flies puncture the soft and tender fruits with their stout and hard ovipositor and lay eggs below the epidermis.

- On hatching, the maggots which are voracious in nature feed inside on the pulp of fruits.

- The infested fruits can be identified by the presence of brown resinous juice which oozes out of the punctures made by the flies for oviposition.

- These punctures also serve as an entry for various bacteria and fungi which results for rotting, distortion and malformation and pre-matured falling of fruits.

The grubs make tunnel in a zigzag manner through the pulp, endocarp and the seed coat.

- The grubs feed on the cotyledons and destroy them.

- The adults which emerge from the pupae feed on the developing seed and this may hasten the maturity of infested fruits and cause damage of fruits

- Both the nymphs and adults suck the sap from the inflorescence in large numbers causing withering and shedding of flower buds and flowers which result in poor fruit setting.

- The honey dew excreted by them affords conditions for development of sooty mould.

Nature And Damage of Maggot:
The maggots feed on seedlings, transplants and bulbs. Infested plants wilt and turn pale green to
yellow. First generation maggots in the spring cause the most damage. Young plants are more
susceptible to attack and can be killed, established plants are damaged but not usually killed.
Feeding damage causes misshapen bulbs and allows the entry other species of maggots and decay
organisms.
Control:
The onion maggot life cycle lasts from 37 to more than 60 days.The first-generation adults emerge
from pupae around mid-May in the northeastern US, with peak flights occurring about 2 weeks
later. Adults can survive for 2-4 weeks and may lay hundreds of eggs, beginning approximately 7
to 10 days after emergence.

Nature And Damage of FLY

It feeds on onion, garlic and chews both in the field and in stores. When plants are attacked, the
leaves start to turn yellow and the bulbs rot quickly, especially in damp conditions. Control
measures include crop rotation, the use of seed dressings, early sowing or planting, survey and
removal of infested plants, and autumn digging of the ground to destroy the pupae.
Control Measures
Application consist of placing sand soaked with a cupful of kerosene in a bucket of dry sand at the
base of the plants along the row is very effective for deteriing the parent files from depositing their
eggs. This will also kill young maggots that might attempts to work through sand.
 

Bulbs infested with bulb mites may rot and fail to produce new growth, or new growth may be off
color, stunted, and distorted.
 Once the mites are inside the bulb, they rapidly turn the bulbs into rotten pulp.
 Apparently bulb mites can attack healthy new roots and corms, especially in greenhouses. The
mites may penetrate into lily stems which become brittle. Infested lilies are often dwarfed,
distorted, and the stem roots are suppressed.
Bulb mites may enter prematurely opened tulip buds and cause bud necrosis.
 

Spider mites are two-spotted arachnids that change color from pale green to orange or red when
the weather becomes cold. They suck chlorophyll from the leaves, causing white translucent spots
and a silky web that can cover the whole crop.
CONTROL:
The garden pests can be controlled by natural predators such as beneficial mites, ladybugs,
lacewings, parasitic wasps, and spiders. They can also be eradicated by an organic spray which
needs to be applied on a weekly basis.
 

The most common vegetable bugs are the mealy, squash, and stink bugs. The three pests are well
known to pierce the stems and leaves and suck the sap, causing crop distortion and stunted growth.
They are pale pink, grey or white and popular in sheltered gardens.

CONTROL:
These bugs can be controlled by natural sprays such as garlic fire and predators such as wasps.
They can also be managed by methylated spirits, smothering oils, and physical methods such as
squeezing and crushing with hand
 

It is well known to cause great damage to beet, spinach, and chard.
CONTROL:
These harmful insects can be controlled by a suitable insecticide. They can also be controlled by
biological sprays, wasp predators which eat the larva and mechanical methods such as destroying
infested crops and eliminating weeds.
 

The maggots of the Carrot Rust Fly damage plants by eating the small fibrous roots and by tunneling in larger roots.

A rust-colored material develops in the tunnels, giving the insect its name.
Affected plants may become yellow, stunted, and die. Usually the plant tops continue to look healthy.

Maggots often continue to feed in stored carrots.

Disease organisms may enter the feeding tunnels and cause them to rot.

Neem has proven effective against this pest.
 

They are insect pests that can cause severe damage to sweet potatoes.

The larvae cause the most damage by feeding on the stems and storage roots.

When weevil populations are high, more than one preventive method should be used such as: use of clean planting material, planting early in
season and/or using early maturing varieties, selecting deep rooting varieties or earthing up the
soil around the base of the plant, removal of crop residues and volunteer plants, and crop rotation.
 

 Majorly pests of yam in West Afica .

From egg to adult takes 22-24 weeks and emergence coincides with the beginning of the rains and the planting of yams.

Further attack occurs just before harvest when the beetles again feed voraciously and then migrate to the breeding sites.

 The adult beetles burrow into the soil and feed on the tubers.

Preventive methods, such as planting as late in the season as possible and treating planting material with an insecticide before planting, are the best ways to control yam
beetles and reduce the infestation.
 

Both the adult and nymph suck sap from the collard/cabbage plant causing it to wilt, turn brown and die.

Younger plants are more susceptible to the feeding.

Larger plants can withstand higher populations but show reduced growth and yellowing.
 

Plants attacked by the cabbage maggot appear sickly, off color, and stunted.

If the attack is severe, they wilt suddenly during the heat of the day and die.

Cabbage roots show brownish grooves over their surface and slimy winding channels running through the flesh. Many of the small fibrous roots are eaten off.

Early cabbage after transplanting and late cabbage while still in the seedbed are most severely injured.
 

The larvae feed on all parts of the plant but prefer places around the bud of a young plant,crevices between loose leaves of a firm head, and the undersides of wrapper leaves.

Larvae will often not eat completely through the leaf, leaving tiny "windows" of thin foliage.

Their feeding may disfigure the bud of a young plant so that the marketable portion will not develop properly.
 

Cross-striped cabbageworms prefer the tender terminal buds and the heads of cole crop plants and riddle them with holes.

Eggs are laid in clusters, and large numbers of the larvae hatch on individual plants scattered over a field.
 

Cabbage webworms tunnel into and kill the buds of young plants.

Destruction of the original bud causes the production of secondary buds that cannot mature by harvest time.

Less severe injury may disfigure the head produced from the original bud.

Feeding on the outer leaves of older plants usually does little harm.
The shiny, light brown pupae are about one-fourth inch long.

They form in a web that is attached to fallen leaves and other debris on the soil surface.
 

Newly hatched larvae usually eat out small areas on the undersides of leaves.

As they grow, they move to the center of the plant, eating through the leaves between the veins.

Large larvae are heavy feeders and may cause serious damage to marketable heads especially when numerous.

Damage however, may at times be restricted to wrapper leaves.
 

The damage to the plant is caused mainly by the adult insects which feed voraciously on the leaves, flowers and fruits.

The beetle makes hole in the plant tissues, causing death or retardation of growth.

The damage done to young seedlings is often devastating.

The grubs of this pest remain in the soil and feeds on roots and stem of the plant.
 

At least three common cucurbit leaf beetles attack pumpkins in South Africa. They are all black and orange and damage flowers and leaves.

 Its larvae feed on the roots of crops.

CONTROL :Cucurbit beetles must be controlled when they are first noticed in the spring.

                     Daily scouting is essential during the emergence and early life of the crop while the plants are small and suspect.

This pest stings young fruit (usually smaller than 10cm) and lays eggs in a cluster under the peel.
Infected fruit rots.
CONTROL: Put out bait consisting of Dipterex, sugar and water when flowering starts. Control with pesticide every seven to 10 day
 

Tomato leaf miner larvae feed on leaves and fruits, from seedlings to mature tomato plants.

Infestation is often followed by infections by secondary pathogens rendering infested crops unmarketable.

CONTROL: For an effective control strategy tomato growers should install and maintain pheromone traps formass trap monitoring of this pest in fields and greenhouses                      which are devoid of netting.

                    In case of such greenhouses, these should have installed pheromone traps or other mass trapping devices on the inside and should also have installed                            pheromone traps on the outside distributed throughout the perimeter.

High potato aphid populations can distort leaves and stems, stunt plants, and cause necrotic spots on leaves.

These aphids also secrete a large amount of honeydew that promotes development of sooty mold on foliage and fruit.

Plants are particularly susceptible to yield losses from high infestations during the period from 6 to 8 weeks before harvest.

Yield losses from equally high aphid populations decline substantially as harvest approaches, unless aphid densities are reducing leaf area enough to permit sunburn.
 

When the infestation is on shoots, they bend down and whither, affected leaves and shoot wither and dry.

At later stage of growth, caterpillars bore into flower buds and fruits , sometimes from under the calyx, when no visible symptoms are apparent.

Damaged flower buds are shed and fruits show circular holes. The large holes seen on fruits are usually the exit holes of the caterpillars.
 

Caterpillars roll leaves and feed on chlorophyll while remaining inside the folds.

The folded leaves wither and dry up.

Control : Collection and destruction of infested leaves along with insects in the initial stage help

                 to minimize the infestation.

            Spraying of Carbaryl (0.1%) or Malathion (0.05%) controls the pest effectively.
 

Tomato fruit borer is one of the most destructive pests of tomato.

The adults lay majority of theeggs on the upper and lower leaf surfaces of the first four leaves in the top canopy.

The larvae scrape the tomato foliage until early or late second instar stage.

The larva bores into the fruit making it unfit for marketing.

In severe cases of infestation more than 80 per cent fruits get damaged.
 

The larvae sometimes roll the leaflets in large numbers and cause appreciable damage.

The mite attacks through basal plate of the bulb, or though the outer skin layers.

If a bulb is bruised or damaged in any way, mite development occurs more quickly. Roots may also be "mined" internally .

Cause damage by boring into onion bulbs and make cavities which lead to withering of plants.

The maggots bore into the bulbs, causing the plants to become flabby and yellowish.

It causes withering in the field and rotting in storage. 

Damage leads to the invasion of Bacillus carolovorus which causes soft rot of onion.

Adults and nymphs lacerate the epidermis of the leaf and lap the exuding sap.

The affected leaves show silvery white blotches which later become brownis. 

Bulbs remain undersized and get distorted, they transmit viruses.

White coloured scales are seen scattered on rhizomes and later they congregate near the growing buds.

Rhizomes are severely infested, they become shriveled and desiccated affecting its germination.

Early instars feed on the lamina of the freshly emerged leaves.

Later instars feed voraciously on leaves leaving only the mid ribs

Nymphs occurs on the under surface of the leaves and suck the sap.

Infested plant becomes stunted and covered with honey dew and sooty mould later.

The caterpillars damage terminal shoots by boring into them.

Drying of terminal portions of the vines.

The pest infestation is higher during July-November when numerous new shoots are available on the vines.

The thrips make marginal galls on leaves within which they live in colonies

  Rasp and suck the sap

Leaf tissue become thick, crinkled and brittle.

Causes the leaf margins to curl down and inwards resulting in the formation of marginal leaf galls.

Larvae  feeds into irregular holes .

On mature leaves, the beetle scrapes the green matter leaving the layer of upper epidermis.

The adults feed on tender shoots, spikes and berries.

The infested shoots and spikes turn black and drop.

The grub on emergence bore into the berries, feed on the internal contents and make them hollow.

The infested berries turn yellow initially and then black and crumble when pressed.

The pest population is more severe in shaded areas.

During the period from January to April the adults do not breed but remain in the field feeding on older leaves.